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Annotated Bibliography 9
Johnson, C. & Priest, H. A. (2014). The feedback principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 449-463). New York: Cambridge.
Johnson and Priest (2014) offer help for instructional designers in providing effective comments to learners during multimedia instruction. While commenting immediately after a learner completes a problem situation is an ideal practice, instructional designers must provide comments that clarify their errors with detailed examples instead of just a sound or noise that indicates if the learner was right or wrong with a problem situation. The rationale for providing detailed comments is that the explanation will direct learners to the correct situation and promote higher level thinking skills which are not provided by yes or no answers to the problem.
Overall, the research in providing effective comments to learners is statistically high and instructional designers should utilize this principle often. However, these comments must allow learners to participate in guided learning practice to master the problem situation. Second, instructional designers must consider other multimedia principles when designing the comments, like adding spoken words to explanations, since learners perform better with spoken words. Finally, the learner’s previous skills should be taken into consideration when designing the comments- information that repeats can be unnecessary for learners. Therefore, comments after a problem situation is a great strategy, however, the instructional designer must design the comments carefully because of the above considerations.
Scheiter, K. (2014). The learner control principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 487-512). New York: Cambridge.
Scheiter (2014) discusses the importance of learners being able to manipulate their learning. Manipulation comes in four forms: “…sequencing…selection or content control…pacing…[and] representation control” (Schieter, 2014, p.488).
However, one factor that plays into learner manipulation is the learner must have previous skills and understanding of the content. If the learner possesses this prior skillset, then the learner should be given as much influence on their learning as possible. If the learner is new to the content, then the learner manipulation needs to be restrained so the learner can understand the material clearly before this restriction is uplifted.
On the other hand, when a learner is given the ability to manipulate their understanding of content, the research has indicated that this ability has increased the unnecessary mental burden on the learner and therefore the achievement is diminished. One recommendation to help with learner manipulation is to be sure that the learner has previous skills and intelligence before being given ability to manipulate the content. Second, detailed assistance must be given to the learner when manipulation happens, because this assistance helps the learner to create new strategies to solve problem situations.
In conclusion, the instructional designer must be careful when adding learning manipulation because this principle needs careful and detailed assistance for all learners when they manipulate the content. The idea that learners are gaining new mental strategies and are more interested in learning are claims only and have not been proved.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2005). Role of Guidance, Reflection, and Interactivity in an Agent-Based Multimedia Game. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 117-128.
Mayer and Moreno (2005) discuss the importance of active/non-active educational programs and what techniques to utilize to increase effectiveness of the program. In active/non-active educational programs there are four ideas: first, “…interactivity…” is when the learner is asked to answer a problem situation (Mayer & Moreno, 2005, p.117). Second, “…reflection…” is when the learner has to defend the answer they have chosen (Mayer & Moreno, 2005, p.118). Third, “…feedback…” is when the learner is given a yes or no response after completing a problem situation (Mayer & Moreno, 2005, p.118). Finally, “…guidance…” is when the learner is given a detailed clarification of the problem situation after completing the problem (Mayer & Moreno, 2005, p.118).
The researchers conducted their own experiments and found that when given active multimedia learning experiences, guidance should be utilized often to help direct learners to the correct solutions to problem situations. On the other hand, when multimedia experience is not active and guidance is not readily available to learners, learners should be asked to defend their answers often. When the experience is active, explanations are not necessary because the learner has to utilize mental resources as the active experience is asking the learner the answers to problem situations, also known as interactivity. Therefore, instructional designers must be aware to allow learners to explain situations when the experience is not active and eliminate explanations when clear support is given in an active experience.
Kalyuga, S. (2007). Enhancing Instructional Efficiency of Interactive E-learning Environments: A Cognitive Load Perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 387-399.
Kalyuga (2007) gives analysis on how to reduce the mental burden when learners experiencing multimedia settings are given choice on how to learn material. The researcher gives the observation that a learner who is new to the material/problem situation needs detailed and structured assistance to understand the material/problem situation. When the learner has more experience with the material/problem situation, then this assistance can be diminished gradually.
Unnecessary mental burdens in multimedia environments include: information is too spread apart in the multimedia environment; too much information is given to the learner at one time, the learner does not have a previous skillset to solve the problem; and when the learner has an understanding of the material, previous details repeat too often in the multimedia environment. In order to limit this unnecessary mental burden, instructional designers should add a pre-assessment for the learner for what they know about a problem situation and then the multimedia program can assist the learner to find a correct solution of the program situation. Furthermore, the speed of the multimedia program is important in providing an experience that does not frustrate the learner. If explanations are needed in a multimedia program, they should occur on the same page so the learner does not have to use mental capacity to understand two different programs. Overall, when designing multimedia programs, the learner’s previous experience and skills are huge factors in making a successful program for learners.
Domagk, S., Schwartz, R. N., & Plass, J. L. (2010). Interactivity in multimedia learning: An integrated model. Computers in Human Behavior, 26 (5), 1024-1033. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.003
I selected the article by Domagk, Schwartz and Plass (2010) because the researchers provide a new structure for thinking about interactivity in multimedia programs. First, the researchers provide a definition of interactivity, which means the learner and the digital program have a responding relationship where either the learner or digital channel give a response, and the learner or digital channel reply. Therefore, interactivity must include the learner and digital channel. Next, Domagk, Schwartz, and Plass (2010) created a structure called “The Integrated Model of Multimedia Interactivity (INTERACT)…” (p. 1026). This structure has six parts and includes the educational setting, which focuses on the design of the instructional program. Next, the physical performance of the learner is considered and what mental strategies are utilized in the instructional program. Finally, feelings are important because they can influence learning, as prior skillset plays a role in the structure, and other unpredictable factors from the learner can influence the INTERACT model.
The researchers utilize the INTERACT model to explain learner control and guidance (Domagk, Schwartz, and Plass, 2010, p.1031). Learner control is created by the design of instruction, which can be influenced by physical performance and mental strategies. Guidance is created by the design of instruction, which directly influences mental strategies and physical performance. In sum, instructional designers need to be aware that the overall design of their product can influence how receptive the learner is to the multimedia program. Careful consideration of the learning audience is critical for successful multimedia programs.
Johnson and Priest (2014) offer help for instructional designers in providing effective comments to learners during multimedia instruction. While commenting immediately after a learner completes a problem situation is an ideal practice, instructional designers must provide comments that clarify their errors with detailed examples instead of just a sound or noise that indicates if the learner was right or wrong with a problem situation. The rationale for providing detailed comments is that the explanation will direct learners to the correct situation and promote higher level thinking skills which are not provided by yes or no answers to the problem.
Overall, the research in providing effective comments to learners is statistically high and instructional designers should utilize this principle often. However, these comments must allow learners to participate in guided learning practice to master the problem situation. Second, instructional designers must consider other multimedia principles when designing the comments, like adding spoken words to explanations, since learners perform better with spoken words. Finally, the learner’s previous skills should be taken into consideration when designing the comments- information that repeats can be unnecessary for learners. Therefore, comments after a problem situation is a great strategy, however, the instructional designer must design the comments carefully because of the above considerations.
Scheiter, K. (2014). The learner control principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 487-512). New York: Cambridge.
Scheiter (2014) discusses the importance of learners being able to manipulate their learning. Manipulation comes in four forms: “…sequencing…selection or content control…pacing…[and] representation control” (Schieter, 2014, p.488).
However, one factor that plays into learner manipulation is the learner must have previous skills and understanding of the content. If the learner possesses this prior skillset, then the learner should be given as much influence on their learning as possible. If the learner is new to the content, then the learner manipulation needs to be restrained so the learner can understand the material clearly before this restriction is uplifted.
On the other hand, when a learner is given the ability to manipulate their understanding of content, the research has indicated that this ability has increased the unnecessary mental burden on the learner and therefore the achievement is diminished. One recommendation to help with learner manipulation is to be sure that the learner has previous skills and intelligence before being given ability to manipulate the content. Second, detailed assistance must be given to the learner when manipulation happens, because this assistance helps the learner to create new strategies to solve problem situations.
In conclusion, the instructional designer must be careful when adding learning manipulation because this principle needs careful and detailed assistance for all learners when they manipulate the content. The idea that learners are gaining new mental strategies and are more interested in learning are claims only and have not been proved.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2005). Role of Guidance, Reflection, and Interactivity in an Agent-Based Multimedia Game. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 117-128.
Mayer and Moreno (2005) discuss the importance of active/non-active educational programs and what techniques to utilize to increase effectiveness of the program. In active/non-active educational programs there are four ideas: first, “…interactivity…” is when the learner is asked to answer a problem situation (Mayer & Moreno, 2005, p.117). Second, “…reflection…” is when the learner has to defend the answer they have chosen (Mayer & Moreno, 2005, p.118). Third, “…feedback…” is when the learner is given a yes or no response after completing a problem situation (Mayer & Moreno, 2005, p.118). Finally, “…guidance…” is when the learner is given a detailed clarification of the problem situation after completing the problem (Mayer & Moreno, 2005, p.118).
The researchers conducted their own experiments and found that when given active multimedia learning experiences, guidance should be utilized often to help direct learners to the correct solutions to problem situations. On the other hand, when multimedia experience is not active and guidance is not readily available to learners, learners should be asked to defend their answers often. When the experience is active, explanations are not necessary because the learner has to utilize mental resources as the active experience is asking the learner the answers to problem situations, also known as interactivity. Therefore, instructional designers must be aware to allow learners to explain situations when the experience is not active and eliminate explanations when clear support is given in an active experience.
Kalyuga, S. (2007). Enhancing Instructional Efficiency of Interactive E-learning Environments: A Cognitive Load Perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 387-399.
Kalyuga (2007) gives analysis on how to reduce the mental burden when learners experiencing multimedia settings are given choice on how to learn material. The researcher gives the observation that a learner who is new to the material/problem situation needs detailed and structured assistance to understand the material/problem situation. When the learner has more experience with the material/problem situation, then this assistance can be diminished gradually.
Unnecessary mental burdens in multimedia environments include: information is too spread apart in the multimedia environment; too much information is given to the learner at one time, the learner does not have a previous skillset to solve the problem; and when the learner has an understanding of the material, previous details repeat too often in the multimedia environment. In order to limit this unnecessary mental burden, instructional designers should add a pre-assessment for the learner for what they know about a problem situation and then the multimedia program can assist the learner to find a correct solution of the program situation. Furthermore, the speed of the multimedia program is important in providing an experience that does not frustrate the learner. If explanations are needed in a multimedia program, they should occur on the same page so the learner does not have to use mental capacity to understand two different programs. Overall, when designing multimedia programs, the learner’s previous experience and skills are huge factors in making a successful program for learners.
Domagk, S., Schwartz, R. N., & Plass, J. L. (2010). Interactivity in multimedia learning: An integrated model. Computers in Human Behavior, 26 (5), 1024-1033. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.003
I selected the article by Domagk, Schwartz and Plass (2010) because the researchers provide a new structure for thinking about interactivity in multimedia programs. First, the researchers provide a definition of interactivity, which means the learner and the digital program have a responding relationship where either the learner or digital channel give a response, and the learner or digital channel reply. Therefore, interactivity must include the learner and digital channel. Next, Domagk, Schwartz, and Plass (2010) created a structure called “The Integrated Model of Multimedia Interactivity (INTERACT)…” (p. 1026). This structure has six parts and includes the educational setting, which focuses on the design of the instructional program. Next, the physical performance of the learner is considered and what mental strategies are utilized in the instructional program. Finally, feelings are important because they can influence learning, as prior skillset plays a role in the structure, and other unpredictable factors from the learner can influence the INTERACT model.
The researchers utilize the INTERACT model to explain learner control and guidance (Domagk, Schwartz, and Plass, 2010, p.1031). Learner control is created by the design of instruction, which can be influenced by physical performance and mental strategies. Guidance is created by the design of instruction, which directly influences mental strategies and physical performance. In sum, instructional designers need to be aware that the overall design of their product can influence how receptive the learner is to the multimedia program. Careful consideration of the learning audience is critical for successful multimedia programs.