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Annotated Bibliography 8
Mayer, R.E., & Moreno, R. (2010). Techniques that reduce extraneous cognitive load and manage intrinsic cognitive load during multimedia learning. In J. L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R. Brünken (Eds.), Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 131-152). New York: Cambridge.
Mayer and Moreno (2010) discuss three objectives of instructional designers and eight principles they should utilize to reduce unnecessary thinking in multimedia learning. The three objectives are: first, instructional designers should eliminate any element in multimedia that could interfere with learning the content; second, designers in multimedia should create content that is aligned to the ability level of the learner and represented at a rate the learner can comprehend the material, and; finally, designers in multimedia should use the learner’s prior knowledge to help the learner understand the new content.
In order to reduce unnecessary thinking for learners, five principles should be utilized and followed. First, the coherence principle states that instructors eliminate unnecessary content in multimedia. Second, the redundancy principle states that instructors should eliminate written words when instruction is spoken to learners. Third, the signaling principle states that instructors should use images and color to emphasize important points to the learners. Fourth, the temporal contiguity principle states that instructors should place written words and pictures at the same time. Fifth, the spatial contiguity principle states that instructors should put written words close to components of the multimedia presentation.
In order to create instruction that is aligned to the learner’s current levels, three principles should be utilized and followed. First, the segmenting principle states that learning needs to be in smaller chunks and the learner can manage how fast or slow the content is presented in a presentation. Second, the pre-training principle states that learners need to learn important words and concepts before being given the lesson. Third, multimedia should have images and spoken words instead of images and written words.
van Merriënboer, J. J., & Kester, L. (2014). The four-component instructional design model: Multimedia principles in environments for complex learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 104-148). New York: Cambridge.
[V]an Merriënboer, and Kester (2014) discuss their instructional design model which includes four parts. First, instruction should have real life examples (“learning tasks”) that relate to the learner’s previous skill set and is meaningful for the learner (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.109). The researchers note that learning is best received when the learner can relate to the content in some way as it is being taught. Second, “supportive information” includes instructional designers showing learners how to solve a problem situation and giving immediate comments after a learner completes a problem (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.109). Third, “procedural information” is when steps to the solution are described in the problem process and prior skills are utilized to help learners understand the prior situation (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.109). Finally, “part-task practice” means the learner needs to repeatedly utilize the skill until the learner can perform the problem without any assistance (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.109).
In terms of multimedia learning, “learning tasks” should include computer tasks and three dimensional environments (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.111). “Supportive information” should have students look at the world-wide web for assistance on problems (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.111). “Procedural information” includes specialized applications that can provide detailed assistance and immediate comments after completion of a problem (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.111). “Part-task practice” is software that enables learners to practice their skills (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.111). Finally, “Instructional control” is when software is regulated at the learner’s pace and the learner creates a collection of work to demonstrate progress on problems.
Low, R., & Sweller, J. (2014). The modality principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 227-246). New York: Cambridge.
Low and Sweller (2014) explain the modality principle in multimedia environments. This theory states that learners understand material better when images and spoken words are presented at the same time instead of just presenting the images or spoken words separately. This principle is backed by short and long term memory theories because the learner utilizes both image and sound structures to make meaning of material. Past and current research backs the findings that learners understand material better when images and spoken words are presented at the same time instead of just presenting the images or spoken words separately.
When instructional designers utilize this principle in their work, the spoken words must be short so the learner can understand what is being said along with the picture. If the information presented in spoken words is long and difficult to understand, that information should be written along with the image. Low and Sweller (2014) call this impact “…the transient information effect…” because unnecessary mental burden is placed on the learner to understand information that is sound instead of written text (p.240).
Additionally, instructional designers must create presentations that combine the spoken words and images on each slide. If spoken words and images are not together, the learner has to utilize excessive mental resources to make meaning of the material. Therefore, instructional designers need to make sure the material that is presented is on one page and the difficulty of the audio information is taken into consideration.
Renkl, A. (2014). The worked examples principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 391-412). New York: Cambridge.
Renkl (2014) gives analysis on the worked example principle in multimedia environment. A worked example is where a completed and well explained problem is presented to the learners so they can analyze the skill before attempting a problem situation. Therefore, the researcher thinks this principle is better to utilize at the beginning of the instruction of content since at this point of instruction learners are trying to understand the skill they need to master. If the worked example was not provided to learners, they would utilize other strategies they have learned prior to the instruction to solve the problem, which can create unnecessary mental burden for the learners overall since the learner does not know specifically how to solve the problem.
The researcher presents numerous studies that state if this principle is utilized correctly, it will have positive effects on other principles that are utilized in the multimedia environment. One powerful impact of the worked example principle is the learner can give explanations to other learners or instructors on how to complete the problem situation. When a learner is given a worked example, that learner must utilize higher level mental skills to explain the solution and retention will increase overall due to utilizing higher level mental skills such as analysis. Instructors need to incorporate this principle because worked examples gives clear directions to learners in order to proceed to solve a problem situation.
Ibrahim, M. (2012) Implications of Designing Instructional Video Using Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. Critical Questions in Education, 3(2), 83-104.
I selected the Ibrahim (2012) article because the researcher discusses how to minimize extraneous processing in making recordings for learners. The rationale for studying videos is that learners will understand the material of the lesson better if it is presented in audiovisual format than in a text format. Furthermore, watching recordings allows learners to utilize more mental resources to obtain deeper understanding of the material. On the other hand, the researcher notes that unnecessary information can take up the mental resources of the learner and the instructional designer usually cannot eliminate that information from an audiovisual presentation.
The researcher focuses his remedies to eliminate unnecessary information on Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Ibrahim, 2012, p. 85). Additionally, the researcher names three principles to help improve audiovisual experience for learners. First, instructional designers must break videos into smaller parts so the learner can understand the material better. Learners can only understand a small amount of material each time they are involved in instruction. Second, instructional designers must be able to highlight important parts of the audiovisual presentation so the learner can cue on the details necessary to be successful in the lesson. Finally, the instructional designer must be able to eliminate as much as possible the unnecessary information in the audiovisual presentation. Typically this information is content that is restated several times, content that is appealing but does not support the objective of the instruction, and content that the learner already knows.
Mayer and Moreno (2010) discuss three objectives of instructional designers and eight principles they should utilize to reduce unnecessary thinking in multimedia learning. The three objectives are: first, instructional designers should eliminate any element in multimedia that could interfere with learning the content; second, designers in multimedia should create content that is aligned to the ability level of the learner and represented at a rate the learner can comprehend the material, and; finally, designers in multimedia should use the learner’s prior knowledge to help the learner understand the new content.
In order to reduce unnecessary thinking for learners, five principles should be utilized and followed. First, the coherence principle states that instructors eliminate unnecessary content in multimedia. Second, the redundancy principle states that instructors should eliminate written words when instruction is spoken to learners. Third, the signaling principle states that instructors should use images and color to emphasize important points to the learners. Fourth, the temporal contiguity principle states that instructors should place written words and pictures at the same time. Fifth, the spatial contiguity principle states that instructors should put written words close to components of the multimedia presentation.
In order to create instruction that is aligned to the learner’s current levels, three principles should be utilized and followed. First, the segmenting principle states that learning needs to be in smaller chunks and the learner can manage how fast or slow the content is presented in a presentation. Second, the pre-training principle states that learners need to learn important words and concepts before being given the lesson. Third, multimedia should have images and spoken words instead of images and written words.
van Merriënboer, J. J., & Kester, L. (2014). The four-component instructional design model: Multimedia principles in environments for complex learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 104-148). New York: Cambridge.
[V]an Merriënboer, and Kester (2014) discuss their instructional design model which includes four parts. First, instruction should have real life examples (“learning tasks”) that relate to the learner’s previous skill set and is meaningful for the learner (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.109). The researchers note that learning is best received when the learner can relate to the content in some way as it is being taught. Second, “supportive information” includes instructional designers showing learners how to solve a problem situation and giving immediate comments after a learner completes a problem (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.109). Third, “procedural information” is when steps to the solution are described in the problem process and prior skills are utilized to help learners understand the prior situation (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.109). Finally, “part-task practice” means the learner needs to repeatedly utilize the skill until the learner can perform the problem without any assistance (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.109).
In terms of multimedia learning, “learning tasks” should include computer tasks and three dimensional environments (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.111). “Supportive information” should have students look at the world-wide web for assistance on problems (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.111). “Procedural information” includes specialized applications that can provide detailed assistance and immediate comments after completion of a problem (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.111). “Part-task practice” is software that enables learners to practice their skills (van Merriënboer, and Kester, 2014, p.111). Finally, “Instructional control” is when software is regulated at the learner’s pace and the learner creates a collection of work to demonstrate progress on problems.
Low, R., & Sweller, J. (2014). The modality principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 227-246). New York: Cambridge.
Low and Sweller (2014) explain the modality principle in multimedia environments. This theory states that learners understand material better when images and spoken words are presented at the same time instead of just presenting the images or spoken words separately. This principle is backed by short and long term memory theories because the learner utilizes both image and sound structures to make meaning of material. Past and current research backs the findings that learners understand material better when images and spoken words are presented at the same time instead of just presenting the images or spoken words separately.
When instructional designers utilize this principle in their work, the spoken words must be short so the learner can understand what is being said along with the picture. If the information presented in spoken words is long and difficult to understand, that information should be written along with the image. Low and Sweller (2014) call this impact “…the transient information effect…” because unnecessary mental burden is placed on the learner to understand information that is sound instead of written text (p.240).
Additionally, instructional designers must create presentations that combine the spoken words and images on each slide. If spoken words and images are not together, the learner has to utilize excessive mental resources to make meaning of the material. Therefore, instructional designers need to make sure the material that is presented is on one page and the difficulty of the audio information is taken into consideration.
Renkl, A. (2014). The worked examples principle in multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 391-412). New York: Cambridge.
Renkl (2014) gives analysis on the worked example principle in multimedia environment. A worked example is where a completed and well explained problem is presented to the learners so they can analyze the skill before attempting a problem situation. Therefore, the researcher thinks this principle is better to utilize at the beginning of the instruction of content since at this point of instruction learners are trying to understand the skill they need to master. If the worked example was not provided to learners, they would utilize other strategies they have learned prior to the instruction to solve the problem, which can create unnecessary mental burden for the learners overall since the learner does not know specifically how to solve the problem.
The researcher presents numerous studies that state if this principle is utilized correctly, it will have positive effects on other principles that are utilized in the multimedia environment. One powerful impact of the worked example principle is the learner can give explanations to other learners or instructors on how to complete the problem situation. When a learner is given a worked example, that learner must utilize higher level mental skills to explain the solution and retention will increase overall due to utilizing higher level mental skills such as analysis. Instructors need to incorporate this principle because worked examples gives clear directions to learners in order to proceed to solve a problem situation.
Ibrahim, M. (2012) Implications of Designing Instructional Video Using Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. Critical Questions in Education, 3(2), 83-104.
I selected the Ibrahim (2012) article because the researcher discusses how to minimize extraneous processing in making recordings for learners. The rationale for studying videos is that learners will understand the material of the lesson better if it is presented in audiovisual format than in a text format. Furthermore, watching recordings allows learners to utilize more mental resources to obtain deeper understanding of the material. On the other hand, the researcher notes that unnecessary information can take up the mental resources of the learner and the instructional designer usually cannot eliminate that information from an audiovisual presentation.
The researcher focuses his remedies to eliminate unnecessary information on Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Ibrahim, 2012, p. 85). Additionally, the researcher names three principles to help improve audiovisual experience for learners. First, instructional designers must break videos into smaller parts so the learner can understand the material better. Learners can only understand a small amount of material each time they are involved in instruction. Second, instructional designers must be able to highlight important parts of the audiovisual presentation so the learner can cue on the details necessary to be successful in the lesson. Finally, the instructional designer must be able to eliminate as much as possible the unnecessary information in the audiovisual presentation. Typically this information is content that is restated several times, content that is appealing but does not support the objective of the instruction, and content that the learner already knows.