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Annotated Bibliography 6
Mayer, R. E. (2014) Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 1-26). New York: Cambridge.
Mayer (2014) provides a background of reasoning for the creation of this book. First, he explains the differences between multimedia, multimedia learning, and multimedia instruction. Multimedia is using images and either written or verbal language in our contemporary lives. Multimedia learning is when images and written or verbal language is utilized to create cerebral interpretations for the learner. Third, Multimedia instruction is images and written or verbal language utilized to encourage understanding.
Multimedia instruction is important to instructional designers because spoken or written language can supplement images and images can supplement spoken or written language. Since learners are utilizing two modes of information being presented, the learners construct profound comprehension while viewing multimedia, rather than viewing just images or language alone.
Next, while viewing multimedia instruction, should new equipment or the student be the focus in multimedia learning? According to Mayer (2014), the student should be in charge because new technology is typically seen as a game changer in education when introduced, but typically does not live up to that excitement. Therefore, if the student is the focus, technology helps that student acquire new knowledge and ideas.
Multimedia learning is considered to be constructivist because learners need to keenly make meaning of the images and spoken or written language they are viewing. Drill and practice or data acquirement are not good ways to explain multimedia learning because learners use submissive ways to understand material. Thus, multimedia learning must be able to help learners translate the skills they learned in other situations.
Finally, the outcome of multimedia learning must be meaningful or learners will not be able to accomplish memory tests or critical analysis tests. Multimedia learning is actively trying to change mental structures in learner’s mind to promote new comprehension of a topic instead of changing one’s conduct.
Mayer, R. E. (2014) Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 43-71). New York: Cambridge.
Mayer (2014) explains his cognitive theory of multimedia theory. There are three beliefs of his theory- first; learners have separate pictorial and sound structures. Both of these structures help learners make meaning from presented material. Second, the learner can process a small amount of information in a lesson due to the restrictions of short term memory system. Third, learners are vigorously applying their new knowledge by choosing and classifying information from short term memory and incorporating that new information into their long term memory.
Next, there are three different memory storages- sensory memory, working memory, and long term memory. Sensory memory is temporary storage of incoming information from images and spoken language. Working memory is when the mind is able to make changes to incoming information from spoken language and dimensional images in the short term memory. Long term memory is when the information stays in the mind for a long time.
Therefore, the mind is intentionally choosing pictures and vibrations in the short term memory. At the same time, the mind is classifying vocal text and dimensional information in the short term memory. All of these processes lead to the mind incorporating this new information in the long term memory. Previous experience from the learner experience helps incorporating this new information.
Finally, Mayer discusses three types of load- extraneous, essential, and generative processing. Extraneous processing comes from instruction that does not meet the objectives of the lesson. Essential processing comes from how difficult the learning task is. On the other hand, generative processing helps the learner create understanding from the material.
In order to reduce the processing, Mayer recommends following the principles stated in The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning to help reduce the cognitive task for the students.
Schnotz, W. (2014) Integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 72-103). New York: Cambridge.
Schnotz (2014) discusses the integrated model of text and picture comprehension. The researcher explains that multimedia has several different modalities that contain spoken or written language and images. Exteriorly, written language is considered descriptive representation because this information explains conceptual data to the learner. Images, or depictive representatives, help the learner create implications because the information is easier to read than descriptive.
First, information travels from the eyes, ears, or fingers for a very few seconds. Next, the working memory helps manage information in either image or verbal systems. Finally, this information is integrated into the long term memory with assistance of previous experiences to help the learner understand the material. Another belief of this model includes that words are first understood in the descriptive structure and then the depictive structure, and pictures are first understood in the depictive structure and then the descriptive structure. A final belief of the model is that unified and logical arrangement of information is completed by outside spoken or written text and images and previous experience.
Understanding of material occurs in many different formats- understanding vibrations, understanding writing, understanding images, and understanding vibrations which lead to picture formation. Schnotz (2014) notes that images provide a straight cerebral representation since the abstractness of information does not need to be decoded. The researcher believes his model is founded under a constructivist ideal.
For instruction purposes, first, instructors should utilize images and words for low ability learners. Next, images should correspond to words. Spoken or written words should be close to images. Instructors should not include repeating information. In animation, spoken words should be utilized- in terms of other images; instructors need to base the decision on the text. Images should appear before text. Finally, graphic organizers should be utilized to aid with understanding.
Mayer, R.E., & Anderson, B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An Experimental Test of a Dual-coding Hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 484-490.
Mayer and Anderson (1991) examine the way in which multimedia needs narration in order to be successful. The researchers utilized bicycle tire pump moving pictures in various formats to determine their effect in three different experiments. Three hypotheses were tested- first, the single code hypothesis believes that whatever format of learning is presented to the learners, they will perform well. Second, the separate dual code hypothesis states that two forms of learning exist in images and spoken language. Learners need to comprehend learning in both pictorial and spoken forms. Third, the integrated dual-code hypothesis considers that learning is best acquired when images and spoken language are presented at the same time.
The first experiment showed that spoken words with images provided at the same time outperformed the spoken words before images group when given an analysis question test. In the second experiment, the spoken words with images group outperformed the spoken language only and images only groups in analysis question tests. The spoken language group nearly matched the images with spoken words in memory tests.
After examining these trials, having images with spoken words at the same time was the most effective group overall in the trials. Instructional designers then should incorporate images with spoken words as often as possible in their materials due to their effectiveness. However, the researchers state that more experiments are needed in the instance when animations are given and then spoken words are provided after a minor pause to see their effectiveness. Overall, these experiments verify the dual code theory because the learner was able to utilize the image and word structures to create understanding of the concept.
Sorden, S. D. (2005). A cognitive approach to instructional design for multimedia learning. Informing Science: International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 8, 263-279. Retrieved from https://www.informingscience.org/Journals/InformingSciJ/Overview
I selected the Sorden article (2005) because I wanted to see a different perspective of someone utilizing the theories stated in the course. The researcher believes that most educational technology programs are grounded with feelings instead of proved results in research. For example, researchers are starting to examine if adding unnecessary animations and games in an educational program are good for learning.
Sorden (2005) provides background on Baddley’s Working Memory, Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Theory, and Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory. New effects are explained from Sweller, which include the completion problem effect, which states that learners review completed examples and must solve an unfinished answer to a problem which helps the learner understand the problem better. Another new effect is the variability effect, which states learners should understand as many different strategies to solve a problem.
Next, the ACT-R theory by Anderson is explained, which explains the relationship between short term memory and long term memory. Knowledge is set up between declarative knowledge, which are facts, and procedural knowledge, which are processes that help the mind obtain knowledge. Therefore, facts need to be understood first before processes can be created.
Another key component of this theory is elaboration, which a learner understands the information in multiple ways. Also, learners should be able to justify their answers due to the concept of self-explaining, which the learner discusses information to themselves in order to construct meaning. Lastly, encoding specificity states problem tasks should be transmitted to problem situations in the environment, so the learner can display their skill.
Finally, Sorden explains how in his current position he utilized a lot of concepts presented in these theories when making materials for students. Therefore, the instructional designer needs to be aware of these theories in order to create good materials for learners.
Mayer (2014) provides a background of reasoning for the creation of this book. First, he explains the differences between multimedia, multimedia learning, and multimedia instruction. Multimedia is using images and either written or verbal language in our contemporary lives. Multimedia learning is when images and written or verbal language is utilized to create cerebral interpretations for the learner. Third, Multimedia instruction is images and written or verbal language utilized to encourage understanding.
Multimedia instruction is important to instructional designers because spoken or written language can supplement images and images can supplement spoken or written language. Since learners are utilizing two modes of information being presented, the learners construct profound comprehension while viewing multimedia, rather than viewing just images or language alone.
Next, while viewing multimedia instruction, should new equipment or the student be the focus in multimedia learning? According to Mayer (2014), the student should be in charge because new technology is typically seen as a game changer in education when introduced, but typically does not live up to that excitement. Therefore, if the student is the focus, technology helps that student acquire new knowledge and ideas.
Multimedia learning is considered to be constructivist because learners need to keenly make meaning of the images and spoken or written language they are viewing. Drill and practice or data acquirement are not good ways to explain multimedia learning because learners use submissive ways to understand material. Thus, multimedia learning must be able to help learners translate the skills they learned in other situations.
Finally, the outcome of multimedia learning must be meaningful or learners will not be able to accomplish memory tests or critical analysis tests. Multimedia learning is actively trying to change mental structures in learner’s mind to promote new comprehension of a topic instead of changing one’s conduct.
Mayer, R. E. (2014) Cognitive theory of multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 43-71). New York: Cambridge.
Mayer (2014) explains his cognitive theory of multimedia theory. There are three beliefs of his theory- first; learners have separate pictorial and sound structures. Both of these structures help learners make meaning from presented material. Second, the learner can process a small amount of information in a lesson due to the restrictions of short term memory system. Third, learners are vigorously applying their new knowledge by choosing and classifying information from short term memory and incorporating that new information into their long term memory.
Next, there are three different memory storages- sensory memory, working memory, and long term memory. Sensory memory is temporary storage of incoming information from images and spoken language. Working memory is when the mind is able to make changes to incoming information from spoken language and dimensional images in the short term memory. Long term memory is when the information stays in the mind for a long time.
Therefore, the mind is intentionally choosing pictures and vibrations in the short term memory. At the same time, the mind is classifying vocal text and dimensional information in the short term memory. All of these processes lead to the mind incorporating this new information in the long term memory. Previous experience from the learner experience helps incorporating this new information.
Finally, Mayer discusses three types of load- extraneous, essential, and generative processing. Extraneous processing comes from instruction that does not meet the objectives of the lesson. Essential processing comes from how difficult the learning task is. On the other hand, generative processing helps the learner create understanding from the material.
In order to reduce the processing, Mayer recommends following the principles stated in The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning to help reduce the cognitive task for the students.
Schnotz, W. (2014) Integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 72-103). New York: Cambridge.
Schnotz (2014) discusses the integrated model of text and picture comprehension. The researcher explains that multimedia has several different modalities that contain spoken or written language and images. Exteriorly, written language is considered descriptive representation because this information explains conceptual data to the learner. Images, or depictive representatives, help the learner create implications because the information is easier to read than descriptive.
First, information travels from the eyes, ears, or fingers for a very few seconds. Next, the working memory helps manage information in either image or verbal systems. Finally, this information is integrated into the long term memory with assistance of previous experiences to help the learner understand the material. Another belief of this model includes that words are first understood in the descriptive structure and then the depictive structure, and pictures are first understood in the depictive structure and then the descriptive structure. A final belief of the model is that unified and logical arrangement of information is completed by outside spoken or written text and images and previous experience.
Understanding of material occurs in many different formats- understanding vibrations, understanding writing, understanding images, and understanding vibrations which lead to picture formation. Schnotz (2014) notes that images provide a straight cerebral representation since the abstractness of information does not need to be decoded. The researcher believes his model is founded under a constructivist ideal.
For instruction purposes, first, instructors should utilize images and words for low ability learners. Next, images should correspond to words. Spoken or written words should be close to images. Instructors should not include repeating information. In animation, spoken words should be utilized- in terms of other images; instructors need to base the decision on the text. Images should appear before text. Finally, graphic organizers should be utilized to aid with understanding.
Mayer, R.E., & Anderson, B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An Experimental Test of a Dual-coding Hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 484-490.
Mayer and Anderson (1991) examine the way in which multimedia needs narration in order to be successful. The researchers utilized bicycle tire pump moving pictures in various formats to determine their effect in three different experiments. Three hypotheses were tested- first, the single code hypothesis believes that whatever format of learning is presented to the learners, they will perform well. Second, the separate dual code hypothesis states that two forms of learning exist in images and spoken language. Learners need to comprehend learning in both pictorial and spoken forms. Third, the integrated dual-code hypothesis considers that learning is best acquired when images and spoken language are presented at the same time.
The first experiment showed that spoken words with images provided at the same time outperformed the spoken words before images group when given an analysis question test. In the second experiment, the spoken words with images group outperformed the spoken language only and images only groups in analysis question tests. The spoken language group nearly matched the images with spoken words in memory tests.
After examining these trials, having images with spoken words at the same time was the most effective group overall in the trials. Instructional designers then should incorporate images with spoken words as often as possible in their materials due to their effectiveness. However, the researchers state that more experiments are needed in the instance when animations are given and then spoken words are provided after a minor pause to see their effectiveness. Overall, these experiments verify the dual code theory because the learner was able to utilize the image and word structures to create understanding of the concept.
Sorden, S. D. (2005). A cognitive approach to instructional design for multimedia learning. Informing Science: International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 8, 263-279. Retrieved from https://www.informingscience.org/Journals/InformingSciJ/Overview
I selected the Sorden article (2005) because I wanted to see a different perspective of someone utilizing the theories stated in the course. The researcher believes that most educational technology programs are grounded with feelings instead of proved results in research. For example, researchers are starting to examine if adding unnecessary animations and games in an educational program are good for learning.
Sorden (2005) provides background on Baddley’s Working Memory, Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Theory, and Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory. New effects are explained from Sweller, which include the completion problem effect, which states that learners review completed examples and must solve an unfinished answer to a problem which helps the learner understand the problem better. Another new effect is the variability effect, which states learners should understand as many different strategies to solve a problem.
Next, the ACT-R theory by Anderson is explained, which explains the relationship between short term memory and long term memory. Knowledge is set up between declarative knowledge, which are facts, and procedural knowledge, which are processes that help the mind obtain knowledge. Therefore, facts need to be understood first before processes can be created.
Another key component of this theory is elaboration, which a learner understands the information in multiple ways. Also, learners should be able to justify their answers due to the concept of self-explaining, which the learner discusses information to themselves in order to construct meaning. Lastly, encoding specificity states problem tasks should be transmitted to problem situations in the environment, so the learner can display their skill.
Finally, Sorden explains how in his current position he utilized a lot of concepts presented in these theories when making materials for students. Therefore, the instructional designer needs to be aware of these theories in order to create good materials for learners.