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Annotated Bibliography 3
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 91-110). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Driscoll (2005) discusses long term memory by first explaining the structure of how long term memories are kept. The network model is introduced: its positives are that it can explain the distinctions between concepts in the long-term memory and shows how learners can quickly distinguish between concepts. However, the model cannot clarify the normality of ideas. Next, the feature model is discussed where learners can clarify the normality of ideas but cannot give an explanation for meaning of material. Third, the propositional model shows that long term memory can have meaning but it is extremely difficult to verify if this structure is true. Fourth, the connectionist model shows that active type of knowledge is true, but one model cannot explain all purposes of the brain. Finally, the dual code model of long term memory is briefly discussed, in which words and pictures have separate models to make meaning of new information. Some researchers disagree with this model because they believe “…pictures [are] assumed to be represented in the same way as verbal information (Driscoll, 2005, p.98).”
Next, forms of retrieval are examined. First, recall is when a learner must recollect everything they learned without a clue like an essay prompt. Recognition is when learners must determine the correct choice by structure of study question (multiple choice or true/false). Encoding specificity means that whatever the learner performed when encoding information will be the best memory signals. Forgetting information has three options: first, failure to encode means information was never understood. Second, failure to retrieve means the inability to find prior learned concepts. Third, interference is when experiences make learners forget the learned material.
Driscoll (2005) ends the chapter by recommending four strategies for learning: structured teaching, changeable and broad repetition, teaching strategies for learning, and being in the right physical state.
Clark, J.M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3, 149-210.
Clark and Paivio (1991) explain the dual code theory, in which the learner uses picture structures and word structures within their brain to make meaning of words and pictures. Remembering concepts is broken into three parts: “representational” is when either words or pictures will lead to straight recall of knowledge (Clark and Paivio, p.152, 1991). Next, “associative” is when recall happens inside either the word structure or the picture structure (Clark and Paivio, p.153, 1991). Finally, “referential” is when either the word structure stimulates the picture structure to remember a concept or the picture structure stimulates the word structure to remember a concept (Clark and Paivio, p. 153, 1991).
Therefore, Clark and Paivio (1991) agree “…that imagery, concreteness, verbal and nonverbal associative networks…” can give clarifications in concepts of education (p.157). The researchers state that when a word is not a clear concept, students will have problems remembering that nonconcrete word. If a word is given with a picture, that word is better understood than without the picture. Furthermore, recall can happen if learners are given schemas such as word maps to recall concepts from class. Organizers that are clear to learners help more than conceptual organizers. For example, when a learner has to explain pictures in a text, that learner will remember more of the text.
In terms of teaching, Clark and Paivio (1991) believe that teachers who give goals and reasons behind a lesson along with a plan of that lesson teach better than those teachers who do not do so. Additionally, teachers need to provide instances during the lesson that are relatable to the student’s interests. Teachers should provide recaps of their lessons to increase success. In terms of instruction, Clark and Paivio (1991) provide good strategies for all content areas to implement in their lessons.
Mayer, R.E., Sims, V.K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 389-401.
Mayer and Sims (1994) conducted research that showed that dual coding theory has merit in software knowledge. After a brief review of Clark and Paivio dual coding theory, Mayer and Sims (1994) believe that instruction that touches all “…visual representational connections, verbal representational connections, and referential connections” within the dual coding theory model is highly effective in stimulating higher level thinking skills.” (p. 390). However, the learner must have developed their image and word structures to lead to higher level thinking skills and solve higher level problems. Those who have undeveloped image and word structures need to utilize more mental resources, and may not reach higher level thinking skills to solve higher level problems.
The research examined whether showing animatronics with descriptions is more effective than animatronics first, then a description. In prior research with textbooks, if the picture and writing are on the same page, the student will understand the task better instead of picture and writing on separate pages. Also, learners with prior understanding of the task will perform better, especially those with developed internal image and word structures. Additionally, learners who possess strong three-dimensional thinking abilities in their picture structures can either balance poor instruction with their ability or increase their ability with good instruction.
After the studies were completed, the findings verified Mayer and Sims hypothesis. Those with high three-dimensional thinking skills with animatronics and descriptions at the same time did better than those with poor three-dimensional thinking ability with the same technology. Generally, the group that received animatronics and descriptions at the same time did better than the animatronics first, then description and control groups. Therefore, instructors should include graphics/pictures and description at the same time to increase learning.
Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2003). Return of the mental image: Are there really pictures in the brain? Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 113-118.
Pylyshyn (2003) states that image ideas in the brain are not true because in research studies, learners have understood experience and neural feelings of those images. Other problems with the image theory are that it cannot be witnessed, and learners can make their images with no definite boundaries. Furthermore, when learners are given assignments with images in a study, how well the learner comprehends the assignment will determine the effectiveness of the study.
While new research shows the retina does react to images that could explain image theory, these studies do not provide information on how a picture is created. Additionally, the eye muscle studies show that pictures are in two dimensions, and the assumption is that most mental pictures are in three dimensions. Also, images in the eye have not been decoded and most cerebral pictures cannot be “…reinterpreted visually” (Pylyshyn, 2003, p.116) If the learner is far away from an image the bigger the image will be, but in cerebral images, this rule is false.
Finally, Pylyshyn (2003) explains that some individuals do have poor or no real optical vision and have good cerebral pictures, while some individuals with good optical vision have poor cerebral pictures. The researcher shows in studies that humans can adapt in the physical environment without use of the mind to create cerebral pictures. Overall, this article has implications for instructional designers because Pylyshyn provides a perspective that pictures do not explain all learning in education.
Reed, S.K. (2006). Cognitive architectures for multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 87-98. Doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_2
I selected the Reed article (2006) because he provides a good overview of the concepts covered so far in this course. First, he examines multimodal theories and the dual coding theory which encompasses the picture and word structures of the mind. Dual coding theory shows that learners understand pictures better than words. Next is Baddeley’s Working Memory -- where a new component to help the understanding of multimedia learning is added to the visuospatial sketch pad, central executive, and phonological loop: “The episodic buffer is a storage system that can integrate memory codes from different modalities…. (p.89, Reed, 2006)” New research is mentioned to explain the collaboration of short term and long term memory with this buffer. After Baddeley, Engelkamp’s Multimodal theory is surveyed, which states that learners learn better when they perform an action instead of just listening to the words. The approach has four components: imaginal, physical skills, listening, and performing.
The next section discusses instructional theories and starts with Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory. Cognitive load occurs when the learner has to process a lot of information and does not have all the skills necessary to accomplish the task. Assimilated instructional materials (text and pictures together) perform better than materials that are split up if the teacher wishes to lessen the load. After Sweller, Mayer’s Multimedia Theory is discussed, which Reed states is study-based and focuses on prior theories in his study. One flaw of Mayer’s theory is short term memory conversion to images, words, and previous knowledge. Finally, the ANIMATE theory is inspected, in which the learner makes images in response to a worded question to understand the challenge situation.
A final important implication of this study considers the advantage of using these theories for multimedia learning which includes increasing recognition, diminishing intrusions, combining teaching information, and augmenting knowledge of the material.
Driscoll (2005) discusses long term memory by first explaining the structure of how long term memories are kept. The network model is introduced: its positives are that it can explain the distinctions between concepts in the long-term memory and shows how learners can quickly distinguish between concepts. However, the model cannot clarify the normality of ideas. Next, the feature model is discussed where learners can clarify the normality of ideas but cannot give an explanation for meaning of material. Third, the propositional model shows that long term memory can have meaning but it is extremely difficult to verify if this structure is true. Fourth, the connectionist model shows that active type of knowledge is true, but one model cannot explain all purposes of the brain. Finally, the dual code model of long term memory is briefly discussed, in which words and pictures have separate models to make meaning of new information. Some researchers disagree with this model because they believe “…pictures [are] assumed to be represented in the same way as verbal information (Driscoll, 2005, p.98).”
Next, forms of retrieval are examined. First, recall is when a learner must recollect everything they learned without a clue like an essay prompt. Recognition is when learners must determine the correct choice by structure of study question (multiple choice or true/false). Encoding specificity means that whatever the learner performed when encoding information will be the best memory signals. Forgetting information has three options: first, failure to encode means information was never understood. Second, failure to retrieve means the inability to find prior learned concepts. Third, interference is when experiences make learners forget the learned material.
Driscoll (2005) ends the chapter by recommending four strategies for learning: structured teaching, changeable and broad repetition, teaching strategies for learning, and being in the right physical state.
Clark, J.M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3, 149-210.
Clark and Paivio (1991) explain the dual code theory, in which the learner uses picture structures and word structures within their brain to make meaning of words and pictures. Remembering concepts is broken into three parts: “representational” is when either words or pictures will lead to straight recall of knowledge (Clark and Paivio, p.152, 1991). Next, “associative” is when recall happens inside either the word structure or the picture structure (Clark and Paivio, p.153, 1991). Finally, “referential” is when either the word structure stimulates the picture structure to remember a concept or the picture structure stimulates the word structure to remember a concept (Clark and Paivio, p. 153, 1991).
Therefore, Clark and Paivio (1991) agree “…that imagery, concreteness, verbal and nonverbal associative networks…” can give clarifications in concepts of education (p.157). The researchers state that when a word is not a clear concept, students will have problems remembering that nonconcrete word. If a word is given with a picture, that word is better understood than without the picture. Furthermore, recall can happen if learners are given schemas such as word maps to recall concepts from class. Organizers that are clear to learners help more than conceptual organizers. For example, when a learner has to explain pictures in a text, that learner will remember more of the text.
In terms of teaching, Clark and Paivio (1991) believe that teachers who give goals and reasons behind a lesson along with a plan of that lesson teach better than those teachers who do not do so. Additionally, teachers need to provide instances during the lesson that are relatable to the student’s interests. Teachers should provide recaps of their lessons to increase success. In terms of instruction, Clark and Paivio (1991) provide good strategies for all content areas to implement in their lessons.
Mayer, R.E., Sims, V.K. (1994). For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 389-401.
Mayer and Sims (1994) conducted research that showed that dual coding theory has merit in software knowledge. After a brief review of Clark and Paivio dual coding theory, Mayer and Sims (1994) believe that instruction that touches all “…visual representational connections, verbal representational connections, and referential connections” within the dual coding theory model is highly effective in stimulating higher level thinking skills.” (p. 390). However, the learner must have developed their image and word structures to lead to higher level thinking skills and solve higher level problems. Those who have undeveloped image and word structures need to utilize more mental resources, and may not reach higher level thinking skills to solve higher level problems.
The research examined whether showing animatronics with descriptions is more effective than animatronics first, then a description. In prior research with textbooks, if the picture and writing are on the same page, the student will understand the task better instead of picture and writing on separate pages. Also, learners with prior understanding of the task will perform better, especially those with developed internal image and word structures. Additionally, learners who possess strong three-dimensional thinking abilities in their picture structures can either balance poor instruction with their ability or increase their ability with good instruction.
After the studies were completed, the findings verified Mayer and Sims hypothesis. Those with high three-dimensional thinking skills with animatronics and descriptions at the same time did better than those with poor three-dimensional thinking ability with the same technology. Generally, the group that received animatronics and descriptions at the same time did better than the animatronics first, then description and control groups. Therefore, instructors should include graphics/pictures and description at the same time to increase learning.
Pylyshyn, Z.W. (2003). Return of the mental image: Are there really pictures in the brain? Trends in Cognitive Science, 7, 113-118.
Pylyshyn (2003) states that image ideas in the brain are not true because in research studies, learners have understood experience and neural feelings of those images. Other problems with the image theory are that it cannot be witnessed, and learners can make their images with no definite boundaries. Furthermore, when learners are given assignments with images in a study, how well the learner comprehends the assignment will determine the effectiveness of the study.
While new research shows the retina does react to images that could explain image theory, these studies do not provide information on how a picture is created. Additionally, the eye muscle studies show that pictures are in two dimensions, and the assumption is that most mental pictures are in three dimensions. Also, images in the eye have not been decoded and most cerebral pictures cannot be “…reinterpreted visually” (Pylyshyn, 2003, p.116) If the learner is far away from an image the bigger the image will be, but in cerebral images, this rule is false.
Finally, Pylyshyn (2003) explains that some individuals do have poor or no real optical vision and have good cerebral pictures, while some individuals with good optical vision have poor cerebral pictures. The researcher shows in studies that humans can adapt in the physical environment without use of the mind to create cerebral pictures. Overall, this article has implications for instructional designers because Pylyshyn provides a perspective that pictures do not explain all learning in education.
Reed, S.K. (2006). Cognitive architectures for multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 87-98. Doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_2
I selected the Reed article (2006) because he provides a good overview of the concepts covered so far in this course. First, he examines multimodal theories and the dual coding theory which encompasses the picture and word structures of the mind. Dual coding theory shows that learners understand pictures better than words. Next is Baddeley’s Working Memory -- where a new component to help the understanding of multimedia learning is added to the visuospatial sketch pad, central executive, and phonological loop: “The episodic buffer is a storage system that can integrate memory codes from different modalities…. (p.89, Reed, 2006)” New research is mentioned to explain the collaboration of short term and long term memory with this buffer. After Baddeley, Engelkamp’s Multimodal theory is surveyed, which states that learners learn better when they perform an action instead of just listening to the words. The approach has four components: imaginal, physical skills, listening, and performing.
The next section discusses instructional theories and starts with Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory. Cognitive load occurs when the learner has to process a lot of information and does not have all the skills necessary to accomplish the task. Assimilated instructional materials (text and pictures together) perform better than materials that are split up if the teacher wishes to lessen the load. After Sweller, Mayer’s Multimedia Theory is discussed, which Reed states is study-based and focuses on prior theories in his study. One flaw of Mayer’s theory is short term memory conversion to images, words, and previous knowledge. Finally, the ANIMATE theory is inspected, in which the learner makes images in response to a worded question to understand the challenge situation.
A final important implication of this study considers the advantage of using these theories for multimedia learning which includes increasing recognition, diminishing intrusions, combining teaching information, and augmenting knowledge of the material.