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Annotated Bibliography 10
Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of instructional development, 10(3), 2-10.
Keller (1987) gives his analysis on why he is utilizing the ARCS model in constructing training. One reason for creating this theory is because at that time, no theory existed to help instructional designers create content for learners. Next, Keller explains the four themes of the ARCS model, which are attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (Keller, 1987, p. 3). Attention is the most important step of this model because learners need to exhibit concentration or the instruction will have very little meaning for learners (Keller, 1987, p. 3). Relevance means that the instruction relates to the learner’s current interests (Keller, 1987, p. 3). Confidence is when a learner can complete a problem situation without assistance (Keller, 1987, p. 5). Finally, Satisfaction means a learner experiences a pleasant feeling after completing a problem situation – this experience can occur inside the learner or as an external incentive (Keller, 1987, p. 6).
Also, the ARCS model has four steps for designers to follow: define, design, develop, and evaluate (Keller, 1987, p. 7). Define means the designer examines the audience motivation and creates motivational goals (Keller, 1987, p. 7). Design is when the designer finds motivation approaches for the material in the instruction (Keller, 1987, p. 7). Develop means the designer embeds motivational parts in the instruction (Keller, 1987, p. 7). Evaluate is when the designer reflects on instruction and makes changes for future lessons (Keller, 1987, p. 7).
In sum, the ARCS model provides guidelines for instructional designers to follow to make sure motivation is a part of instruction.
Fredrickson, B.L. (2004). The Role of Emotion in Positive Psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226.
Frederickson (2004) explains the importance of utilizing optimistic feelings. The researcher first explains that discouraging feelings are usually more researched because: scholars are looking for solutions to these bad feelings; scholars typically focus on the bad instead of the good in diagram; and good emotions are unclear in terms of definitions (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1367-8). Second, optimistic feelings are vaguely linked to emotional conditions (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1368). Third, optimistic feelings are unfairly connected to continuous use of optimistic feelings (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1368).
Therefore, the Broaden and Build Theory of Positive Emotions was created to show that optimistic feelings have many different effects on individuals. First, optimistic feelings help increase memory capacity in terms of wide thinking and attentional resources (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1370). Second, optimistic feelings eliminate pessimistic feelings (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1370). Third, optimistic feelings make individuals more mentally durable (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1371). Fourth, optimistic feelings create new coping strategies for individuals (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1372). Finally, optimistic feelings help make individuals more healthy both mentally and bodily (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1373).
Therefore, Frederickson’s research shows instructional designers the importance of being positive with learners during instruction so the message of the content can be felt more profoundly than they would if the message was negative. Positivity helps learners to complete problem situations since they feel supported rather than intimidated.
Isen, A. M., Nowicki, G. P., & Daubman, K. A. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122-1131.
Isen, Nowicki, and Daubman (1987) show how optimistic stimulus can help learners answer challenges in an innovative matter. In a series of experiments the researchers conducted, a person who is given optimistic stimulus will find solutions more inventively than those who were given pessimistic conditions. Encouraging stimulus before giving a problem situation had better results than giving someone a minor reward before being given a problem situation. However, minor incentives are effective in inducing innovative thinking for learners because the incentive helps a learner feel good, which leads to more innovative performance on problem situations.
Therefore, instructional designers should give optimistic stimulus with their learners as often as possible as this positivity will help students solve challenging situations. However, instructional designers need to be wary that learners who experience positive stimulus before a problem situation are presenting the situation in a different way and do not create a mental burden on the mind. In order to foster innovative ideas to problems, designers must allow learners “…to achieve a sense of competence, self-worth, and respect” (Isen, Nowicki, & Daubman, 1987, p. 1129).
Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 485-498.
Um, Plass, Hayward, and Homer (2012) explain how optimistic feelings can be added to multimedia activities and how optimistic feelings affect the understanding of problem situations. If instructional designers want to create optimistic materials for learners, they should first utilize warm colors (yellow and orange) but not red because this hue was shown to decrease test scores (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.488). Secondly, circular shapes should be utilized more than other shapes because learners associate circular shapes with an infant’s face (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.488).
The researchers conducted several experiments on adding optimistic feelings and found that instructional designers who have fostered inner optimistic feelings for problem situations kept this happy state until the problem was completed (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.495). Furthermore, optimistic feelings increased scores on understanding content tests (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.495). Third, learners who experience optimistic feelings before a problem situation demonstrate more relevant cognitive exertion and less challeng in problem situations (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.495). Fourth, enthusiasm and gratification of the problem situation increased with optimistic feelings before the problem situation was given (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.496). Finally, optimistic feelings before the problem situation increased awareness of the learner’s understanding of the material (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.496).
Mayer, R. E, Shokbo, K., & Mautone, P. D. (2003). Social cues in multimedia learning: Role of speaker’s voice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 419-425.
Mayer, Sobko, and Mautone (2003) explain why having a vocal sound that is relatable to the learner helps the learner understand the problem situation and material of the instruction better in a multimedia lesson. The researchers give background on the social agency theory, which means that the learner is interacting with computer-generated vocal sounds in a multimedia program, and therefore is experiencing a discussion instead of a lecture, which leads to improved mental ability and outcomes on problem situations (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 419). This outcome happens because the vocal sounds are recognizable to the learner (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 419). Learners who experience unnatural vocal sounds in a multimedia program feel they are getting a lecture, and therefore experience more mental burden (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 420).
The researchers conducted trials using natural, motorized, and unnatural vocal sounds in a multimedia program, and found that learners overall did perform better with the natural vocal sounds in a multimedia program (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 424). Therefore, the researchers created the voice principle, which means learners will understand more when a program is presented in natural vocal sounds in a multimedia program than either motorized or unnatural vocal sounds in a multimedia program (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 424).
Instructional designers when creating computerized instruction should utilize natural voices as often as possible so the learners feel they are talking to a real human being.
Astleitner, H., & Wiesner, C. (2004). An Integrated Model of Multimedia Learning and Motivation. Journal Of Educational Multimedia & Hypermedia, 13(1), 3-21.
I selected the Astleitner and Wiesner (2004) article because they provide a useful model of multimedia and motivation theories together to help guide instructional designers create better instructional material for learners. The authors first provide a review of both mental and motivation theories and note their flaws. First, the Malone and Moss theory provides only basic details and does not lead to further investigation (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.5). A combined approach of ARCS motivation and self-regulated learning has two obstacles: self-regulation is a mental theory while ARCS is behavioral and this combination does not address multimedia learning (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.8). Third, the theory from Hede has too many different types of theories making it hard to prove in research (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.10).
Therefore, Astleitner and Wiesner (2004) unite Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia and many different motivational theorists’ ideas in a newly developed format (p.14). Motivation was added because according to the researchers, working memory demands are not just mental but also motivational (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.12). The additions to Mayer’s theory begins with attention because the person needs to think about the problem situation (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.15). Second, engagement is important because the learner will complete the problem situation quicker if they want to do it (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.15). Finally, if the learner is actively assessing the problem situation, this situation will be completed more accurately (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.15).
The other motivational components of the new model include goal setting, which starts the cognitive process administration and action control, keeping the cognitive process administration for a problem situation active over a period of time (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.15). In conclusion, this model will help instructional designers create material that is both intelligence and motivation based.
Keller (1987) gives his analysis on why he is utilizing the ARCS model in constructing training. One reason for creating this theory is because at that time, no theory existed to help instructional designers create content for learners. Next, Keller explains the four themes of the ARCS model, which are attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (Keller, 1987, p. 3). Attention is the most important step of this model because learners need to exhibit concentration or the instruction will have very little meaning for learners (Keller, 1987, p. 3). Relevance means that the instruction relates to the learner’s current interests (Keller, 1987, p. 3). Confidence is when a learner can complete a problem situation without assistance (Keller, 1987, p. 5). Finally, Satisfaction means a learner experiences a pleasant feeling after completing a problem situation – this experience can occur inside the learner or as an external incentive (Keller, 1987, p. 6).
Also, the ARCS model has four steps for designers to follow: define, design, develop, and evaluate (Keller, 1987, p. 7). Define means the designer examines the audience motivation and creates motivational goals (Keller, 1987, p. 7). Design is when the designer finds motivation approaches for the material in the instruction (Keller, 1987, p. 7). Develop means the designer embeds motivational parts in the instruction (Keller, 1987, p. 7). Evaluate is when the designer reflects on instruction and makes changes for future lessons (Keller, 1987, p. 7).
In sum, the ARCS model provides guidelines for instructional designers to follow to make sure motivation is a part of instruction.
Fredrickson, B.L. (2004). The Role of Emotion in Positive Psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226.
Frederickson (2004) explains the importance of utilizing optimistic feelings. The researcher first explains that discouraging feelings are usually more researched because: scholars are looking for solutions to these bad feelings; scholars typically focus on the bad instead of the good in diagram; and good emotions are unclear in terms of definitions (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1367-8). Second, optimistic feelings are vaguely linked to emotional conditions (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1368). Third, optimistic feelings are unfairly connected to continuous use of optimistic feelings (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1368).
Therefore, the Broaden and Build Theory of Positive Emotions was created to show that optimistic feelings have many different effects on individuals. First, optimistic feelings help increase memory capacity in terms of wide thinking and attentional resources (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1370). Second, optimistic feelings eliminate pessimistic feelings (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1370). Third, optimistic feelings make individuals more mentally durable (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1371). Fourth, optimistic feelings create new coping strategies for individuals (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1372). Finally, optimistic feelings help make individuals more healthy both mentally and bodily (Frederickson, 2004, p. 1373).
Therefore, Frederickson’s research shows instructional designers the importance of being positive with learners during instruction so the message of the content can be felt more profoundly than they would if the message was negative. Positivity helps learners to complete problem situations since they feel supported rather than intimidated.
Isen, A. M., Nowicki, G. P., & Daubman, K. A. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122-1131.
Isen, Nowicki, and Daubman (1987) show how optimistic stimulus can help learners answer challenges in an innovative matter. In a series of experiments the researchers conducted, a person who is given optimistic stimulus will find solutions more inventively than those who were given pessimistic conditions. Encouraging stimulus before giving a problem situation had better results than giving someone a minor reward before being given a problem situation. However, minor incentives are effective in inducing innovative thinking for learners because the incentive helps a learner feel good, which leads to more innovative performance on problem situations.
Therefore, instructional designers should give optimistic stimulus with their learners as often as possible as this positivity will help students solve challenging situations. However, instructional designers need to be wary that learners who experience positive stimulus before a problem situation are presenting the situation in a different way and do not create a mental burden on the mind. In order to foster innovative ideas to problems, designers must allow learners “…to achieve a sense of competence, self-worth, and respect” (Isen, Nowicki, & Daubman, 1987, p. 1129).
Um, E., Plass, J. L., Hayward, E. O., & Homer, B. D. (2012). Emotional design in multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(2), 485-498.
Um, Plass, Hayward, and Homer (2012) explain how optimistic feelings can be added to multimedia activities and how optimistic feelings affect the understanding of problem situations. If instructional designers want to create optimistic materials for learners, they should first utilize warm colors (yellow and orange) but not red because this hue was shown to decrease test scores (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.488). Secondly, circular shapes should be utilized more than other shapes because learners associate circular shapes with an infant’s face (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.488).
The researchers conducted several experiments on adding optimistic feelings and found that instructional designers who have fostered inner optimistic feelings for problem situations kept this happy state until the problem was completed (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.495). Furthermore, optimistic feelings increased scores on understanding content tests (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.495). Third, learners who experience optimistic feelings before a problem situation demonstrate more relevant cognitive exertion and less challeng in problem situations (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.495). Fourth, enthusiasm and gratification of the problem situation increased with optimistic feelings before the problem situation was given (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.496). Finally, optimistic feelings before the problem situation increased awareness of the learner’s understanding of the material (Um, Plass, Hayward, & Homer, 2012, p.496).
Mayer, R. E, Shokbo, K., & Mautone, P. D. (2003). Social cues in multimedia learning: Role of speaker’s voice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(2), 419-425.
Mayer, Sobko, and Mautone (2003) explain why having a vocal sound that is relatable to the learner helps the learner understand the problem situation and material of the instruction better in a multimedia lesson. The researchers give background on the social agency theory, which means that the learner is interacting with computer-generated vocal sounds in a multimedia program, and therefore is experiencing a discussion instead of a lecture, which leads to improved mental ability and outcomes on problem situations (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 419). This outcome happens because the vocal sounds are recognizable to the learner (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 419). Learners who experience unnatural vocal sounds in a multimedia program feel they are getting a lecture, and therefore experience more mental burden (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 420).
The researchers conducted trials using natural, motorized, and unnatural vocal sounds in a multimedia program, and found that learners overall did perform better with the natural vocal sounds in a multimedia program (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 424). Therefore, the researchers created the voice principle, which means learners will understand more when a program is presented in natural vocal sounds in a multimedia program than either motorized or unnatural vocal sounds in a multimedia program (Mayer, Sobko, & Mautone, 2003, p. 424).
Instructional designers when creating computerized instruction should utilize natural voices as often as possible so the learners feel they are talking to a real human being.
Astleitner, H., & Wiesner, C. (2004). An Integrated Model of Multimedia Learning and Motivation. Journal Of Educational Multimedia & Hypermedia, 13(1), 3-21.
I selected the Astleitner and Wiesner (2004) article because they provide a useful model of multimedia and motivation theories together to help guide instructional designers create better instructional material for learners. The authors first provide a review of both mental and motivation theories and note their flaws. First, the Malone and Moss theory provides only basic details and does not lead to further investigation (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.5). A combined approach of ARCS motivation and self-regulated learning has two obstacles: self-regulation is a mental theory while ARCS is behavioral and this combination does not address multimedia learning (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.8). Third, the theory from Hede has too many different types of theories making it hard to prove in research (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.10).
Therefore, Astleitner and Wiesner (2004) unite Mayer’s Cognitive Theory of Multimedia and many different motivational theorists’ ideas in a newly developed format (p.14). Motivation was added because according to the researchers, working memory demands are not just mental but also motivational (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.12). The additions to Mayer’s theory begins with attention because the person needs to think about the problem situation (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.15). Second, engagement is important because the learner will complete the problem situation quicker if they want to do it (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.15). Finally, if the learner is actively assessing the problem situation, this situation will be completed more accurately (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.15).
The other motivational components of the new model include goal setting, which starts the cognitive process administration and action control, keeping the cognitive process administration for a problem situation active over a period of time (Astleitner & Wiesner, 2004, p.15). In conclusion, this model will help instructional designers create material that is both intelligence and motivation based.