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Annotated Bibliography 1
Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 71-77). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Driscoll believes behaviorism cannot explain every educational scenario and presents the Cognitive Information Processing Theory. The author believes that the mind is like a computer: input from a lesson will lead to an output of long term memory. The three stages in the information-processing theory are sensory memory, working memory, and long term memory.
Sensory memory is short-lived and gives the learner enough time to recognize the stimulus. In working memory, or short term memory, the learner is beginning to manage the information for long term memory. However, the threshold of working memory is that the learner can only remember a small number of concepts since the mind cannot process a large amount of ideas at once. Finally, in long term memory, the information is stored forever in the mind. Long term memory is boundless.
When acquiring information, Driscoll argues that learners use new information from a lesson or training and prior information in their heads to construct meaning. Furthermore, the meaning of message can manipulate what the learner understand from the lesson or training. For example, the sentence “I saw a red truck.” has a different meaning than “I saw a red truck, the firetruck.” The student has more freedom to think what is being said in the first example, while the second example is more likely to force the reader to think about firetrucks.
Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and historical Overview. Human Cognition (pp. 1-27). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
In the first chapter of Human Cognition, Guenther (1998) provides a summary of the history of cognition. The author first explains how humans initially believed in supernatural phenomenon before natural theories were created by Copernicus to explain how the world functions. The theories then began to relate to life, and Charles Darwin stated that species need to adapt to their environments or those species will die. Next, dualism and materialism are discussed, which further tried to explain how the body and objects function in the supernatural and natural worlds. In the nineteenth century, scientists began to conduct studies which tried to explain how cerebral experiences happen “…without studying the brain.”(p.8) The next century saw the psychologists shift to studying how a child develops and how language is learned by following the rules of the language.
In the next stage of cognition, human minds are compared to computers, or the information processing claim, which states that short term memory leads to long term memory and that humans can retain limitless information. However, Guenther (1998) states that this theory has problems because humans do have limits to information acquisition, they cannot clearly remember all the details, and symbols have different meanings for different individuals. The neural net machine theory is introduced, which states that humans recognize a stimulus by how strong the input is before the output is detected. Additional hidden units help guide the human output, so this model is more flexible than the information processing claim.
Finally, Guenther (1998) explains that behaviorism does not deal with inside activities of the mind and is solely focused on outside forces shaping experiences. However, cognitive psychologists argue that the inside processes of the mind are complicated and need to be studied in order to achieve meaning for thinking.
Smith & Ragan (1999). Introduction to Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 1-12). New York: Wiley.
Smith and Ragan (1999) explain the basics of Instructional Design in their first chapter. They define instructional design as “…the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation.” (p.2) Smith and Ragan (1999) explain the differences between instruction, education, training, and teaching. Instruction is information and strategies given to reach a learning objective. Education can happen anywhere as long as people acquire information. Training is an individual acquiring particular abilities to be utilized instantly. Finally, teaching is instruction provided by a person.
Design is when a person develops a method before attempting to answer a problem. Generally, instructional design has three processes: analysis, strategy, and evaluation. Smith and Ragan (1999) state that all of these parts are connected and each part must be thoughtfully planned and revised if necessary. The authors explain that instructional design is a good process because learners are critical to the process, instruction is typically successful for learners, it promotes collaboration with all individuals involved in the process, it allows for circulation since it is reproducible, it encourages different models of transfer, it presents a structure for finding solutions for learner difficulties, and it promotes similarity in the objectives, strategies, and examinations.
However, Smith and Ragan (1999) note the instructional design process cannot recognize the results of instruction, involves intensive planning, and cannot help with non-educational problems. Finally, the authors explain that instructional designers are found in many industries-- especially teaching--where the instructional design process can help a teacher with a curriculum. Smith and Ragan (1999) state that teachers that have taken instructional design courses are more effective than teachers who do not because they are more thoughtful with their teaching.
Smith & Ragan (1999). Foundations of Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 13-29). New York: Wiley.
Smith and Ragan (1999) explain the learning theories and philosophies behind Instructional Design. The rationale for covering these theories and philosophies is that they cover the solutions to problems in the process and that individuals involved in these theories have created the basis of instructional design. The philosophies include constructivism, wherein learning is acquired by intentional incidents that shape an individual understanding of material, and contextualism, wherein the real world provides the basis for learning. Empiricism believes that people learn from experience but all people experience learning the same way.
Next, Smith and Ragan discuss beliefs under instructional design- these include that the designer must understand the problem, and harness the best ways that learners understand material. Furthermore, learners may not need an individual leading the class, the process is true at all levels of human development, assessments should be based on instruction and on performance, and goals and assessments should be aligned correctly. Behaviorism is explained as “…concentrated on the observable behavior of organisms.” (p.19)
The information processing theory is reviewed from sensory register (brief look at the material) to working memory (short term memory) and then long term memory. Connectivism is then used to describe why humans remember certain long term memories due to neuron activity in the brain. Smith and Ragan (1999) state how cognitive psychology has led to deeper analysis of the instructional design process. Developmental theories are considered-- from Piaget, who believed growth is important before information acquisition-- to Vygotsky, who believed human development follows learning. (p.24) Some developmental theories believe these activities happen at the same time. Finally, Bloom’s Model of Mastery of Learning is discussed in instructional theories because he identifies what the learner needs to understand in the pre-assessment, and that instruction needs “…participation, reinforcement, and feedback….” (p.25)
Ertmer, P. A. & Newby, T.J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72. doi: 10.1111/j.1937-8327.1993.tb00605.x
I selected the Ertmer and Newby article because it provided an excellent review of learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism for instructional designers. Ertmer and Newby (1993) argue that instructional designers do not possess knowledge of these learning theories and may be subject to following the current trends of education instead on relying on sound educational beliefs. The authors outline seven questions based on learning which they utilize on each learning theory to differentiate each theory. Ertmer and Newby (1993) provide an historical overview of empiricism--a belief that education happens due to experiences; and rationalism—wherein learning is constructed through prior reasoning. These past theories have provided the background of the three theories examined in the article.
Ertmer and Newby (1993) discuss behaviorism, which in terms of instructional design, would be utilized for pre-assessments to find where the learner should begin in a lesson as well as completing lower cognitive tasks before higher cognitive tasks. An example of behaviorism would be completing single step equations before attempting two step equations. In cognitivism the learner understands his experiences, condenses presented information for practical use and makes new connections with prior knowledge. Finally, constructivism in instructional design states that the learner uses prior skills to solve real world problems and is able to organize information in different situations.
Ertmer and Newby (1993) conclude the article by stating the learning theories should be utilized by the content in the learning assignment and the acquired skill set of the learner. Furthermore, the authors state that learners could experience all theories during the instructional design process. In other words, all three learning theories have value for instructional designers and should be remembered for future utilization.
Driscoll believes behaviorism cannot explain every educational scenario and presents the Cognitive Information Processing Theory. The author believes that the mind is like a computer: input from a lesson will lead to an output of long term memory. The three stages in the information-processing theory are sensory memory, working memory, and long term memory.
Sensory memory is short-lived and gives the learner enough time to recognize the stimulus. In working memory, or short term memory, the learner is beginning to manage the information for long term memory. However, the threshold of working memory is that the learner can only remember a small number of concepts since the mind cannot process a large amount of ideas at once. Finally, in long term memory, the information is stored forever in the mind. Long term memory is boundless.
When acquiring information, Driscoll argues that learners use new information from a lesson or training and prior information in their heads to construct meaning. Furthermore, the meaning of message can manipulate what the learner understand from the lesson or training. For example, the sentence “I saw a red truck.” has a different meaning than “I saw a red truck, the firetruck.” The student has more freedom to think what is being said in the first example, while the second example is more likely to force the reader to think about firetrucks.
Guenther, R.K. (1998). Introduction and historical Overview. Human Cognition (pp. 1-27). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
In the first chapter of Human Cognition, Guenther (1998) provides a summary of the history of cognition. The author first explains how humans initially believed in supernatural phenomenon before natural theories were created by Copernicus to explain how the world functions. The theories then began to relate to life, and Charles Darwin stated that species need to adapt to their environments or those species will die. Next, dualism and materialism are discussed, which further tried to explain how the body and objects function in the supernatural and natural worlds. In the nineteenth century, scientists began to conduct studies which tried to explain how cerebral experiences happen “…without studying the brain.”(p.8) The next century saw the psychologists shift to studying how a child develops and how language is learned by following the rules of the language.
In the next stage of cognition, human minds are compared to computers, or the information processing claim, which states that short term memory leads to long term memory and that humans can retain limitless information. However, Guenther (1998) states that this theory has problems because humans do have limits to information acquisition, they cannot clearly remember all the details, and symbols have different meanings for different individuals. The neural net machine theory is introduced, which states that humans recognize a stimulus by how strong the input is before the output is detected. Additional hidden units help guide the human output, so this model is more flexible than the information processing claim.
Finally, Guenther (1998) explains that behaviorism does not deal with inside activities of the mind and is solely focused on outside forces shaping experiences. However, cognitive psychologists argue that the inside processes of the mind are complicated and need to be studied in order to achieve meaning for thinking.
Smith & Ragan (1999). Introduction to Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 1-12). New York: Wiley.
Smith and Ragan (1999) explain the basics of Instructional Design in their first chapter. They define instructional design as “…the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation.” (p.2) Smith and Ragan (1999) explain the differences between instruction, education, training, and teaching. Instruction is information and strategies given to reach a learning objective. Education can happen anywhere as long as people acquire information. Training is an individual acquiring particular abilities to be utilized instantly. Finally, teaching is instruction provided by a person.
Design is when a person develops a method before attempting to answer a problem. Generally, instructional design has three processes: analysis, strategy, and evaluation. Smith and Ragan (1999) state that all of these parts are connected and each part must be thoughtfully planned and revised if necessary. The authors explain that instructional design is a good process because learners are critical to the process, instruction is typically successful for learners, it promotes collaboration with all individuals involved in the process, it allows for circulation since it is reproducible, it encourages different models of transfer, it presents a structure for finding solutions for learner difficulties, and it promotes similarity in the objectives, strategies, and examinations.
However, Smith and Ragan (1999) note the instructional design process cannot recognize the results of instruction, involves intensive planning, and cannot help with non-educational problems. Finally, the authors explain that instructional designers are found in many industries-- especially teaching--where the instructional design process can help a teacher with a curriculum. Smith and Ragan (1999) state that teachers that have taken instructional design courses are more effective than teachers who do not because they are more thoughtful with their teaching.
Smith & Ragan (1999). Foundations of Instructional Design. Instructional Design (pp. 13-29). New York: Wiley.
Smith and Ragan (1999) explain the learning theories and philosophies behind Instructional Design. The rationale for covering these theories and philosophies is that they cover the solutions to problems in the process and that individuals involved in these theories have created the basis of instructional design. The philosophies include constructivism, wherein learning is acquired by intentional incidents that shape an individual understanding of material, and contextualism, wherein the real world provides the basis for learning. Empiricism believes that people learn from experience but all people experience learning the same way.
Next, Smith and Ragan discuss beliefs under instructional design- these include that the designer must understand the problem, and harness the best ways that learners understand material. Furthermore, learners may not need an individual leading the class, the process is true at all levels of human development, assessments should be based on instruction and on performance, and goals and assessments should be aligned correctly. Behaviorism is explained as “…concentrated on the observable behavior of organisms.” (p.19)
The information processing theory is reviewed from sensory register (brief look at the material) to working memory (short term memory) and then long term memory. Connectivism is then used to describe why humans remember certain long term memories due to neuron activity in the brain. Smith and Ragan (1999) state how cognitive psychology has led to deeper analysis of the instructional design process. Developmental theories are considered-- from Piaget, who believed growth is important before information acquisition-- to Vygotsky, who believed human development follows learning. (p.24) Some developmental theories believe these activities happen at the same time. Finally, Bloom’s Model of Mastery of Learning is discussed in instructional theories because he identifies what the learner needs to understand in the pre-assessment, and that instruction needs “…participation, reinforcement, and feedback….” (p.25)
Ertmer, P. A. & Newby, T.J. (1993). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72. doi: 10.1111/j.1937-8327.1993.tb00605.x
I selected the Ertmer and Newby article because it provided an excellent review of learning theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism for instructional designers. Ertmer and Newby (1993) argue that instructional designers do not possess knowledge of these learning theories and may be subject to following the current trends of education instead on relying on sound educational beliefs. The authors outline seven questions based on learning which they utilize on each learning theory to differentiate each theory. Ertmer and Newby (1993) provide an historical overview of empiricism--a belief that education happens due to experiences; and rationalism—wherein learning is constructed through prior reasoning. These past theories have provided the background of the three theories examined in the article.
Ertmer and Newby (1993) discuss behaviorism, which in terms of instructional design, would be utilized for pre-assessments to find where the learner should begin in a lesson as well as completing lower cognitive tasks before higher cognitive tasks. An example of behaviorism would be completing single step equations before attempting two step equations. In cognitivism the learner understands his experiences, condenses presented information for practical use and makes new connections with prior knowledge. Finally, constructivism in instructional design states that the learner uses prior skills to solve real world problems and is able to organize information in different situations.
Ertmer and Newby (1993) conclude the article by stating the learning theories should be utilized by the content in the learning assignment and the acquired skill set of the learner. Furthermore, the authors state that learners could experience all theories during the instructional design process. In other words, all three learning theories have value for instructional designers and should be remembered for future utilization.